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Leininger's Theory

-.Merubah budaya klien bila budaya yang dimiliki klien bertentangan dengan kesehatan.

Dalam asuhan keperawatan merupakan bentuk yangoptimal dari pemberian asuhan keperawatan, mengacu pada kemungkinanvariasi pendekatan keperawatan yang dibutuhkan untuk memberikan asuhanbudaya yang menghargai nilai budaya individu, kepercayaan dan tindakantermasuk kepekaan terhadap lingkungan dari individu yang datang dan individu yang mungkin kembali lagi (Leininger, 1985).

c. Cultural care repartening/reconstruction
1) Beri kesempatan pada klien untuk memahami informasi yang diberikan dan

b. Cultural care accomodation/negotiation
1) Gunakan bahasa yang mudah dipahami oleh klien
2) Libatkan keluarga dalam perencanaan perawatan
3) Apabila konflik tidak terselesaikan, lakukan negosiasi dimana kesepakatan berdasarkan pengetahuan biomedis, pandangan klien dan standar etik.

Pengkajian adalah proses mengumpulkan data untuk mengidentifikasi masalah kesehatan klien sesuai dengan latar belakang budaya klien (Giger and Davidhizar, 1995). Pengkajian dirancang berdasarkan 7 komponen yang ada pada "Sunrise Model" yaitu:

adalah fenomena yang berhubungan dengan bimbingan, bantuan, dukungan perilaku pada individu, keluarga, kelompok dengan adanya kejadian untuk memenuhi kebutuhan baik physical maupun potensial untuk meningkatkan kondisi dan kualitas kehidupan manusia.

f.Ras

Klien yang dirawat di rumah sakit memanfaatkan sumber-sumber material yang dimiliki untuk membiayai sakitnya agar segera sembuh. Faktor ekonomi yang harus dikaji oleh perawat diantaranya : pekerjaan klien, sumber biaya pengobatan, tabungan yang dimiliki oleh keluarga, biaya dari sumber lain misalnya asuransi, penggantian biaya dari kantor atau patungan antar anggota keluarga.

i.Caring

Madeleine lahir di Sutton, Nebraska pada thirteen Juli 1925, di sebuah lahan pertanian hidup dengan empat saudara laki-laki dan seorang saudari.

berkenaan dengan kecenderungan tenaga kesehatan untuk memaksakan kepercayaan, praktik dan nilai diatas budaya orang lainkarena percaya bahwa ide yang dimiliki oleh perawat lebih tinggi daripadakelompok lain.

four.3. Perencanaan dan Pelaksanaan

keperawatan Transkultural dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut :
1. Keperawatan transkultural adalah suatu proses pemberian asuhan keperawatan yang difokuskan kepada individu dan kelompok untuk mempertahankan, meningkatkan perilaku sehat sesuai dengan latar belakang budaya
2. Pengkajian asuhan keperawatan dalam konteks budaya sangat diperlukan untuk menjembatani perbedaan pengetahuan yang dimiliki oleh perawat dengan klien
3. Diagnosa keperawatan transkultural yang ditegakkan dapat mengidentifikasi tindakan yang dibutuhkan untuk mempertahankan budaya yang sesuai dengan kesehatan, membentuk budaya baru yang sesuai dengan kesehatan atau bahkan mengganti budaya yang tidak sesuai dengan kesehatan dengan budaya baru.
four. Perencanaan dan pelaksanaan proses keperawatan transkultural tidak dapat begitu saja dipaksakan kepada klien sebelum perawat memahami latar belakang budaya klien sehingga tindakan yang dilakukan dapat sesuai dengan budaya klien.
5. Evaluasi asuhan keperawatan transkultural melekat erat dengan perencanaan dan pelaksanaan proses asuhan keperawatan transkultural.

Tahun antara 1954-1960, menjadi professor keperawatan dan direktur program pasca sarjana di Universitas Cincinnati. Juga menerbitkan buku tentang keperawatan psikiatrik, di sebut Konsep Dasar Keperawatan Jiwa, dalam sebelas bahasa dan digunakan di seluruh dunia.

Sepanjang karianya sebagai perawat terlebih ahli dalam teori keperawatan mulai mengadakan sertifikasi gelar perawatan transkultural dan telah mendirikan organisasi organisasi professional termasuk perawatan transkultural Masyarakat pada tahun 1974, asosiasi perawatan manusia internasional pada tahun1978 dan menjabat sebagai presiden secara penuh pertama dariAmerican Association of Colleges of Nursing. Mendirikan dan menjabat editor pertama dari Journal of Transkultural Nursing pada tahun 1989-1995. Penghargaan terakhir yang di terima adalah anugerah Lifetime Achievement Award untuk kualitatif metodologi.

Tahun 1969-1974, sebagai dekan,professor keperawatan dan dosen antropologi di University Of Washington school of Nursing.

Manusia

3.Paradigma Transkultural Nursing

Keperawatan

-. sehat,

Tahun 1991, sebagai seoarang ahli teori keperawatan beliau menerbitkan teorinya tentang perawatan keanekaragaman budaya dan universal dan menciptakan istilah culturally congruent caresebagai tujuan dari teorinya. Teori ini diuraikan dalam buku keanekaragaman budaya perawatan dan universal. Mengembangkan metode Ethnonursing dan melakukan penelitian di lapangan dengan membaur hidup bersama suku Gadsup di dataran tinggi Timur di New Guinea tentang perawatn transkultural.

a.Budaya

KESIMPULAN

Cultural shock akan dialami oleh klien pada suatu kondisi dimana perawat tidak mampu beradaptasi dengan perbedaan nilai budaya dan kepercayaan. Hal ini dapat menyebabkan munculnya rasa ketidaknyamanan, ketidakberdayaan dan
beberapa mengalami disorientasi. Kebutaan budaya yang dialami oleh perawat ini akan berakibat pada penurunan kualitas pelayanan keperawatan yang diberikan.

Tahun 1965, Madeleine menjadi perawat pertama mendapat gelar Ph.D dalam antropologi, di Washington University. sebagai bagian dari proses beliau mencaripenyelesaian masalah tidak cukup adekuat intervensi kejiwaan tradisional menjawab kebutuhan anak-anak dengan latar belakang budaya yang berbeda-beda.

c.Perbedaan budaya

diantara budaya-budaya yang dimiliki oleh orang lain. adalah persepsi yang dimiliki oleh individu yang menganggap bahwa budayanya adalah yang terbaik

four.four.Evaluasi

adalah tindakan langsung yang diarahkan untuk membimbing,mendukung dan mengarahkan individu, keluarga atau kelompok pada keadaan yang nyata atau antisipasi kebutuhan untuk meningkatkan kondisi kehidupan manusia.

Lingkungan

Perencanaan dan pelaksanaan dalam keperawatan trnaskultural adalah suatu proses keperawatan yang tidak dapat dipisahkan. Perencanaan adalah suatu proses memilih strategi yang tepat dan pelaksanaan adalah melaksanakan tindakan yang sesuai denganlatar belakang budaya klien (Giger and Davidhizar, 1995). Ada tiga pedoman yang ditawarkan dalam keperawatan transkultural (Andrew and Boyle, 1995) yaitu :

Bab I

-. lingkungan dan

Saat yang bersamaan, seorang perawat ada di situ sedang memeriksa keadaan ibu dan bayi tersebut, dia mengiyakan pendapat dari mertua dokter itu dengan mengemukakan argumentasinya bahwa kontak pertama ibu dan anak adalah hal yang sangat baik untuk perkembangan mental bayi nanti; semakin cepat bayi menyusui akan merangsang produksi ASI ; semakin cepat bergerak akan lebih cepat ibu mandiri merawat diri dan bayi.

TEORI DAN MODEL KONSEP KEPERAWATAN MENURUT MADELEINE LEININGER

Mempertahankan budaya dilakukan bila budaya pasien tidak bertentangan dengan kesehatan. Perencanaan dan implementasi keperawatan diberikan sesuai dengan nilai-nilai yang relevan yang telah dimiliki klien sehingga klien dapat meningkatkan atau mempertahankan standing kesehatannya,misalnya budaya Berolah raga setiap pagi

Teori ini berasal dari disiplin ilmu antropologi dan oleh Dr. M. leininger
dikembangkan dalam konteks keperawatan. Teori ini menjabarkan konsep
keperawatan yang didasari oleh pemahaman tentang adanya perbedaan nilai-nilai
kultural yang melekat dalam masyarakat. Leininger beranggapan bahwa sangatlah
penting memperhatikan keanekaragaman budaya dan nilai-nilai dalam penerapan
asuhan keperawatan kepada klien. Bila hal tersebut diabaikan oleh perawat, akan
mengakibatkan terjadinya cultural shock.

berkaitan dengan manusia dari ras tertentu atau kelompok budaya yang
digolongkan menurut ciri-ciri dan kebiasaan yang lazim.

Tahun 1953, Menerima gelar master dalam ilmu keperawatan dari University chatolik of America, di Washington DC, pindah ke Cincinnati dan memulai program pendidikan jiwa pertama di Amerika.

g.Etnografi

Tahun 1948, menyelesaikan diploma keperawatan.

Kebijakan dan peraturan rumah sakit yang berlaku adalah segalasesuatu yang mempengaruhi kegiatan individu dalam asuhankeperawatan lintas budaya (Andrew and Boyle, 1995). Yang perlu dikajipada tahap ini adalah : peraturan dan kebijakan yang berkaitan dengan jam berkunjung, jumlah anggota keluarga yang boleh menunggu, cara pembayaran untuk klien yang dirawat.

k.Culturtal imposition

diyakini.

a. Cultural care preservation/upkeep
1) Identifikasi perbedaan konsep antara klien dan perawat tentang
proses melahirkan dan perawatan bayi
2)Bersikap tenang dan tidak terburu-buru saat berinterkasi dengan klien
3)Mendiskusikan kesenjangan budaya yang dimiliki klien dan perawat

-. manusia,

Kesehatan adalah keseluruhan aktifitas yang dimiliki klien dalam mengisi kehidupannya, terletak pada rentang sehat dan sakit. Kesehatan merupakan suatu keyakinan, nilai, pola kegiatan dalam konteks budaya yang digunakan untuk menjaga dan memelihara keadaan seimbang/sehat yang dapat diobservasi dalam aktivitas sehari-hari. Klien dan perawat mempunyai tujuan yang sama
yaitu ingin mempertahankan keadaan sehat dalam rentang sehat-sakit yang adaptif (Andrew and Boyle, 1995).

1.Pengertian teori Transkultural

Leininger (1985) mengartikan paradigma keperawatan transkultural sebagai cara pandang, keyakinan, nilai-nilai, konsep-konsep dalam terlaksananya asuhan keperawatan yang sesuai dengan latar belakang budaya terhadap empat konsep sentral keperawatan (Andrew and Boyle, 1995), yaitu :

Restrukturisasi budaya klien dilakukan bila budaya yang dimiliki merugikan standing kesehatan. Perawat berupaya merestrukturisasi gaya hidup klien yang biasanya merokok menjadi tidak merokok. Pola rencana hidup yang dipilih biasanya yang lebih menguntungkan dan sesuai dengan keyakinan yang dianut.

tentang pengalaman sakitnya sehingga tidak terulang kembali. Latar belakang pendidikan klien adalah pengalaman klien dalam menempuh jalur pendidikan formal tertinggi saat ini. Semakin tinggi pendidikan klien maka keyakinan klien biasanya didukung oleh buktibukti ilmiah yang rasional dan individu tersebut dapat belajar beradaptasi terhadap budaya yang sesuai dengan kondisi kesehatannya. Hal yang perlu dikaji pada tahap ini adalah : tingkat pendidikan klien, jenis pendidikan serta kemampuannya untuk belajar secara aktif mandiri.

h.Care

-. Keperawatan.

Tahun 1950, menerima gelar sarjana dalam ilmu biologi, ilmu filsafat dan humaniora dariBenedictine College di Atchison, Kansas. Membuka pelayanan keperawatan dan program pendidikan jiwa di Creighton University di Omaha , Nebraska.

2.Konsep dalam Transkultural Nursing

Pembahasan Teori dan model konsep keperawatan Transkultural

Perawat pada tahap ini harus mengkaji faktor-faktor : namalengkap, nama panggilan, umur dan tempat tanggal lahir, jenis kelamin,standing, tipe keluarga, pengambilan keputusan dalam keluarga, danhubungan klien dengan kepala keluarga.

berkenaan dengan kemampuan kognitif untuk mengetahui nilai,kepercayaan dan pola ekspresi yang digunakan untuk mebimbing, mendukung atau memberi kesempatan individu, keluarga atau kelompok untuk mempertahankan kesehatan, sehat, berkembang dan bertahan hidup, hidup dalam keterbatasan dan mencapai kematian dengan damai.

adalah perbedaan macam-macam manusia didasarkan pada mendiskreditkan asal muasal manusia

Tahun 1974-1980, menjabat sebagai dekan dan professor Utah University dan membuka program pertama untuk master dan doktoral transkultural keperawatan.

Aplikasi Teori

Nilai-nilai budaya adalah sesuatu yang dirumuskan dan ditetapkanoleh penganut budaya yang dianggap baik atau buruk. Norma-norma budaya adalah suatu kaidah yang mempunyai sifat penerapan terbatas pada penganut budaya terkait. Yang perlu dikaji pada faktor ini adalah :posisi dan jabatan yang dipegang oleh kepala keluarga, bahasa yang digunakan, kebiasaan makan, makanan yang dipantang dalam kondisi sakit, persepsi sakit berkaitan dengan aktivitas sehari-hari dan kebiasaan membersihkan diri.

Bab II

melaksanakannya.
2) Tentukan tingkat perbedaan pasien melihat dirinya dari budaya kelompok
3) Gunakan pihak ketiga bila perlu.
four) Terjemahkan terminologi gejala pasien ke dalam bahasa kesehatan yang dapat dipahami oleh klien dan keluarga.
5) Berikan informasi pada klien tentang sistem pelayanan kesehatan.

Dari uraian yang telah dijabarkan pada bab terdahulu tentang penerapan asuhan

-. Gangguan komunikasi verbal berhubungan dengan perbedaan kultur,
-. Gangguan interaksi sosial berhubungan disorientasi sosiokultural dan
-. Ketidakpatuhan dalam pengobatan berhubungan dengan sistem nilai yang

Strategi I, Perlindungan/mempertahankan budaya.

Asuhan keperawatan adalah suatu proses atau rangkaian kegiatan pada praktik keperawatan yang diberikan kepada klien sesuai dengan latar belakang budayanya. Asuhan keperawatan ditujukan memandirikan individu sesuai dengan budaya klien. Strategi yang digunakan dalam melaksanakanasuhan keperawatan(Leininger, 1991) adalah :

a.Faktor agama dan falsafah hidup (religious and philosophical reasons)

Tahun 1990, di angkat sebagai the Women in Science Award oleh California State University.

four.1.pengkajian

c.Nilai-nilai budaya dan gaya hidup (cultural worth and life ways)

-.Mengakomodasi budaya klien bila budaya klien kurang menguntungkan kesehatan dan

Asumsi mendasar dari teori adalah perilaku Caring. Caring adalah esensi
dari keperawatan, membedakan, mendominasi serta mempersatukan tindakan
keperawatan. Tindakan Caring dikatakan sebagai tindakan yang dilakukan dalam
memberikan dukungan kepada individu secara utuh. Perilaku Caring semestinya
diberikan kepada manusia sejak lahir, dalam perkembangan dan pertumbuhan,
masa pertahanan sampai dikala manusia itu meninggal. Human being worried secara
umum dikatakan sebagai segala sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan dukungan dan
bimbingan pada manusia yang utuh. Human being worried merupakan fenomena yang
universal dimana ekspresi, struktur dan polanya bervariasi diantara kultur satu
tempat dengan tempat lainnya.

-. Penghargaan bergengsi dari Presiden dalam keunggulan dalam mengajar.

c.Etnosentris

-. Strategi III, Mengubah/mengganti budaya klien

Bab III

Model konseptual yang dikembangkan oleh Leininger dalam menjelaskan asuhan keperawatan dalam konteks budaya digambarkan dalam bentuk matahari terbit (Sunrise Model) seperti yang terdapat pada gambar 1. Geisser (1991) menyatakan bahwa proses keperawatan ini digunakan oleh perawat sebagai landasan berfikir dan memberikan solusi terhadap masalah klien (Andrew andBoyle, 1995). Pengelolaan asuhan keperawatan dilaksanakan dari mulai tahap pengkajian, diagnosa keperawatan, perencanaan, pelaksanaan dan evaluasi.

Tahun 1966, di tunjuk sebagai professor keperawatan dan antropologi di University of Colorado, di mana untuk pertama kalinya perawatan transkultural di perkenalakan di dunia keperawatan.

Diagnosa keperawatan adalah respon klien sesuai latar belakang budayanya yang dapat dicegah, diubah atau dikurangi melalui intervensi keperawatan. (Giger and Davidhizar, 1995). Terdapat tiga diagnose keperawatan yang sering ditegakkan dalam asuhan keperawatan transkultural yaitu :

Tahun 1945, dia bersama saudarinya menjadi kadet di korps perawat dan mengambil program diploma di sekolah perawat St. Anthony, Denver. Hal yang juga mendorong dia menjadi seorang perawat di karenakan salah satu bibinya menderita penyakit jantung bawaan, dia ingin membuat suatu perbedaan dalam kehidupan manusia, khususnya di bidang perawatan.

j.Cultural Care

-. Gershensons Research Fellowship Award.

Tahun 1981, professor dan direktur pusat penelitian kesehatan di Wayne State University. Saat berkarya di sini Madeleine mendapat beberapa penghargaan, antara lain :

adalah ilmu yang mempelajari budaya. Pendekatan metodologi pada penelitian etnografi memungkinkan perawat untuk mengembangkan kesadaran yang tinggi pada perbedaan budaya setiap individu, menjelaskan dasar observasi untuk mempelajari lingkungan dan orang-orang, dan saling memberikan timbal balik diantara keduanya.

adalah norma atau aturan tindakan dari anggota kelompok yang
dipelajari, dan dibagi serta memberi petunjuk dalam berfikir, bertindak dan
mengambil keputusan.

Intervensi dan implementasi keperawatan pada tahap ini dilakukan untuk membantu klien beradaptasi terhadap budaya tertentu yang lebih menguntungkan kesehatan. Perawat membantu klien agar dapat memilih dan menentukan budaya lain yang lebih mendukung peningkatan kesehatan.

TEORI TRANSKULTURAL

-.Mempertahankan budaya yang dimiliki klien bila budaya klien tidak bertentangan dengan kesehatan,

Intervensi dan implementasi keperawatan pada tahap ini dilakukan untuk membantu klien beradaptasi terhadap budaya tertentu yang lebih menguntungkan kesehatan. Perawat membantu klien agar dapat memilih dan menentukan budaya lain yang lebih mendukung peningkatan kesehatan, misalnya klien sedang hamil mempunyai pantang makan yang berbau amis, maka ikan dapat diganti dengan sumber protein hewani yang.

d.Faktor kebijakan dan peraturan yang berlaku (political and legal reasons)

-. The Board of Governors Distinguished Faculty Award.

Lingkungan didefinisikan sebagai keseluruhan fenomena yang mempengaruhi perkembangan, kepercayaan dan perilaku klien. Lingkungan dipandang sebagai suatu totalitas kehidupandimana klien dengan budayanya saling berinteraksi. Terdapat tiga bentuk lingkungan yaitu : fisik, sosial dan simbolik. Lingkungan fisik adalah lingkungan alam atau diciptakan oleh manusia seperti daerah katulistiwa, pegunungan, pemukiman padat dan iklim seperti rumah di daerah Eskimo yang hampir tertutup rapat karena tidak pernah ada matahari sepanjang tahun. Lingkungan sosial adalah keseluruhan struktur sosial yang berhubungan dengan sosialisasi individu, keluarga atau kelompok ke dalam masyarakat yang lebih luas. Di dalam lingkungan sosial individu harus mengikuti struktur dan aturan-aturan yang berlaku di lingkungan tersebut. Lingkungan simbolik adalah keseluruhan bentuk dan simbol yangmenyebabkan individu atau kelompok merasa bersatu seperti musik, seni, iwayat hidup, bahasa dan atribut yang digunakan.

Dr. Madeleine Leininger adalah Guru besar yang terkenal di seluruh dunia, penulis, pengembang teori, penelitidan pembicara publik. Menjadi professor dari sekitar 70 perguruan tinggi, menulis 25 buku dan menerbitkan lebih dari 220 artikel yang sekarang bisa kita lihat sebagai arsip di Wayne State University digunakan juga sebagai bahan penelitian.Memberikan lebih dari 850 kuliah umum di seluruh dunia dan telah mengembangkan software sendiri untuk perawat. Bidang keahliannya adalah keperawatan transkultural,perawatan manusia komparatif, teori perawatan budaya, budaya di bidang keperawatan dan kesehatan, antropologi dan masa depan dunia keperawatan. Magnificent Achievement.

adalah keinginan individu atau tindakan yang lebih diinginkanatau sesuatu tindakan yang dipertahankan pada suatu waktu tertentu danmelandasi tindakan dan keputusan.

f.Faktor pendidikan (tutorial reasons)

-. Strategi II, Mengakomodasi/negoasiasi budaya.

Biografi Madeleine Leininger

Transkultural Nursing adalah suatu space/wilayah keilmuwan budaya pada
proses belajar dan praktek keperawatan yang fokus memandang perbedaan dan
kesamaan diantara budaya dengan menghargai asuhan, sehat dan sakit didasarkan
pada nilai budaya manusia, kepercayaan dan tindakan, dan ilmu ini digunakan
untuk memberikan asuhan keperawatan khususnya budaya atau keutuhan budaya
kepada manusia (Leininger, 2002).

b.Faktor sosial dan keterikatan keluarga (kinship and social reasons)

Bab IV

Manusia adalah individu, keluarga atau kelompok yang memiliki nilai-nilai dan norma-norma yang diyakini dan berguna untuk menetapkan pilihan dan melakukan pilihan. Menurut Leininger (1984) manusia memiliki kecenderungan untuk mempertahankan budayanya pada setiap saat dimanapun dia berada (Geiger and Davidhizar, 1995).

Agama adalah suatu simbol yang mengakibatkan pandangan yangamat realistis bagi para pemeluknya. Agama memberikan motivasi yang sangat kuat untuk menempatkan kebenaran di atas segalanya, bahkan diatas kehidupannya sendiri. Faktor agama yang harus dikaji oleh perawatadalah : agama yang dianut, standing pernikahan, cara pandang klien terhadap penyebab penyakit, cara pengobatandan kebiasaan agama yang berdampak positif terhadap kesehatan.

-. Strategi I, Perlindungan/mempertahankan budaya.

four.2.Diagnosa keperawatan

e.Etnis

b.Nilai budaya

Studi kasus

Sehat

four.Proses keperawatan Transkultural.

Seorang dokter muda berumur 28 tahun baru saja melahirkan anak pertamanya, di kamar perawatan dia ditemani oleh suami dan keluarga termasuk mertuanya. Karena baru selesai melahirkan, sang dokter tampaknya agak malas untuk menyusui bayinya saat itu dan ingin tidur sebentar. Melihat hal tersebut ibu mertuanya berkata tidak baik bagi seorang ibu yang baru melahirkan untuk bermalas-malasan dan tidak segera menyusui bayinya, menurut ibu mertuanya nanti akan terbawa malas untuk bekerja di kemudian hari.

e.Faktor ekonomi (just right worth reasons)

Perawat dan klien harus mencoba untuk memahami budaya masing masing melalui proses akulturasi, yaitu proses mengidentifikasi persamaan dan perbedaan budaya yang akhirnya akan memperkaya budaya budaya mereka. Bila perawat tidak memahami budaya klien maka akan timbul rasa tidak percaya sehingga hubungan terapeutik antara perawat dengan klien akan terganggu. Pemahaman budaya klien amat mendasari efektifitas keberhasilan menciptakan hubungan perawat dan klien yang bersifat terapeutik.

Evaluasi asuhan keperawatan transkultural dilakukan terhadap keberhasilan klien tentang mempertahankan budaya yang sesuai dengan kesehatan, mengurangi budaya klien yang tidak sesuai dengan kesehatan atau beradaptasi dengan budaya baru yang mungkin sangat bertentangan dengan budaya yang dimiliki klien. Melalui evaluasi dapat diketahui asuhan keperawatan yang sesuai dengan latar belakang budaya klien.
Leininger's Theory

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